Introduction
Initially it's easy to agree with Barber's statement - globalisation is seductive when you put a costly mass marketed global brand on it. However I realise we're already seduced into this world – there's no paradigm shift for us - we were born into a McWorld, it's continuity of the only culture we know. But for others – those members of Barber's Jihad, this involves a fundamental change, and one much harder to stomach. This is why my thesis is not as simple as I may want it to be. While I think the statement is correct, I also believe we will see the various forces of what McDonald's and Coke stand for (Globalisation) implemented, and accepted, to different extents in different places in its different forms. By looking at contrasting evidence of cultural, economic and strategic impacts I will debate this theory.
Cultural Hybridisation
Today, aside from those with genocidal tendencies, most might agree with Ayaan Hirsi Ali who once said human beings are equal, but cultures are not. The media sells dreams of luxurious western McWorld lifestyles[1] for those who don't have it, or war-torn primitive ways of Jihad for those living the good life – Jihad sometimes the means to McWorld[2], the two forces co-habiting within states[3]generating a dilemma as to which will triumph – the Americanisation debate going back to early Cold War days with French resistance to Coca-cola and what it symbolised[4], the worry always that it will lead to corollary political and economic domination[5]. But rather than homogensation, what of the middle ground – hybridisation[6]?
Selling us this picture we have the US 'melting pot'[7], the US in a way globalising itself through immigration and integration policies (Buddhism and yoga ever more popular amongst US citizens[8]), possibly leading the way at home in acceptance rather than the often cited imposition on foreign soils. Or what of Japan showing us the best of East and West all packaged into one homogeneous and proud society[9], teenage music tastes across more than just Japan and the US showing no sign of national identity[10] (no-one has any globalisation issues over Chopin do they?[11]) - and why would they when news networks like CNN/BBC lack any form of national identity[12] and practically regulate consumption[13] perpetuating Hip-Hop, Deisel Jeans and Nike[14]? There is sushi becoming ever more popular in California[15], McDonald's Japanese shrimp and Jewish kosher burgers[16] for Japanese and Jewish customers alike, US basketball fans growing in China, e-mail in Ethiopia, and a fax from Mt Everest[17]. Outsourcing foreign on-site assignments in Australia and the UK – and do these workers want to go home? Not those I know. They want the lifestyle here having been accepted into society with little question to eat Big Mac's for lunch while they read foreign news web site, and then pop to their local religious sanctuary of choice, if not takinig up another of their plethora of options. Some say the MNCs destroy alternatives, and create food totalitarianism[18], but if you look at western states you see vast choice and variety demanded. Even if McDonald's symbolises homogeneity, global adoption must start somewhere – somewhere requiring a consistent, reliable product, always be the same (how could franchises which give so many in developing countries an opportunity for work operate under vast variations?)
What about Intermarriage between cultural backgrounds[19], politics presently awash with pictures of the first African-American president, inspiring ethnic minorities in his own country and ethnic majorities across a continent to what the American way can do for you. Perhaps his multicultural background opening up previously parochial national interests to issues such as human rights, war, AIDS, the environment, and economic instability. Things now seen as global, not national[20] interests. Taking global input does not need to erode the national fabric; they can cohabit and mix[21] - much like the Romans absorbed the Greek culture[22] and formed hybrid myths rather than rewriting the history books[23], seeing value in both ways. After lobbying against coca-cola in France the same wine lobbyists sought later sought to learn from the US production methods[24]. What is borrowed from other cultures is often made local[25] some European nations priding themselves on cultural adoptions from colonies[26] Plus there is also growing social activism or 'globalisation-from-below' allowing say on how globalisation will be realised[27] and excluding the full impact of enforced globalisation-from-above[28] More and more people are learning English every day[29].
Can this image of alluring sunkist settings used to advertise products available in more and more places be than the urge to mobilise and force these views upon people. Ultimately people are not going to support 'everything' and that's why tolerance will become the key, not acceptance, but tolerance and hybridisation.
However on the flipside, images of a globe drinking a bottle of coke once on the cover of Time magazine[30] can be scary to those who aren't American, because Coke symbolises only part of the invasion - Hollywood leading the charge[31] - of this soulless McWorld[32]....and saying “no” is perceived as hostility[33], which can raise the question of how friendly product distribution really is, the US using their position as post-war benefactors to leverage business interests post-WW2 for example[34]
Even now Europe and the US are conflated as 'The West' despite little geopolitical opportunity for tight unison, and Europeans/Americans mirror their laughter at each other's foreign peculiarities[35]. If you're not laughing at those within your own branch of 'East' or 'West' you're stereotyping the other to foster more disharmony, each side terrified of losing its traditions and ways of life. With language efforts like Esperanto have gained little acceptance[36][37] , Nigeria is playing with the idea of linguistic multiculturalism[38], and English is being challenged as the dominant language (fewer than 50 percent knowing it as first language[39]) despite commerce and science increasingly requiring it[40]- not the picture of global acceptance you would expect. But then Latin once fell apart only to leave multiple modern languages in its wake[41]
To oppose McWorld's[42] dominance is the Eurabia[43] theory gaining pace. If they collide head first generating a big bang will we see a new cultural universe for all to enjoy, or total destruction?
Fundamentalist terrorism is growing[44], perhaps as a tool for renewed social identity[45] but it surely can't outpace globalisation. Europe was 'globalised' before by Christianity , only to come up against a most worthy opponent in Islam – the Battle of Poitiers a very fine line between one 'global' outcome and another.
There is a potential for spiritual globalisation[46], history tells the story itself.
Economic Inequality
Both great prosperity and great poverty exist among us[47].MNCs, open markets, freely moved capital and the recent financial crisis has shown to a large extent the interdependence of the big players in world finance. But Australia seemed to fair better in the stormy weather and one wonders if this serves to illustrate that there is still an inequality, and not just amongst the global south.
Capitalism is not associated with any one country, which is why finance is perceived the most advanced aspect of globalisation today[48]. China and Vietnam are on the train whether they wish to admit it and privatisation of the public sphere is imminent in places like India[49] With Currencies easily convertible[50], and technology facilitating transfer of capital to anywhere[51], nations have lost ability to control exchange rates and currency due to the market's globalised nature [52] there's an interdependence[53] states having tailored their policies towards mobile economy out of necessity and weakening their standing as a result[54]
Outsourcing brings work to the global south at the expense of the global north, middle classes in Europe and the US down a peg, the burgeoning masses of India more middle-class than ever. Every state wanting something someone else has and nationalism plays little part in every day purchase decisions. Even those with national/religious causes can be deeply ingrained into the businesses of Barber's McWorld[55].
Having said that, it's claimed the economy was more open between 1870 and 1914 and international markets are not necessary unprecedented[56] the qualitives being different independent of the quantatives[57]. Capitalism leads to concentration of wealth[58], between 1960 and 1997 the world's richest going from 30 to 74 times richer than the worlds poorest[59] and poverty affected 1.3 billion according to a human development report by the UN in 1995[60] and a United Nations Development Program (UNDP) report indicating that poverty and inequality rise to match western prosperity[61] Firms from different nations compete globally, but mostly in different industries or market segments[62] and to be transnational is rare, companies often having national bases[63] and national policies reinforced through mercantile and protectionist policies resulting from these internationalised economies[64] The open markets need common behaviours, languages and currency[65], yet language we've discovered is not there yet. Global economy doesn't actually mean global; Europe, the US and Japan[66][67] still being the big players while sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia are forgotten, falling further into inequality and China/India progress[68], their rise giving hope to the global south seeing opportunity as a dream. If colonialism is anything to go by countries will only become more undeveloped as those on the up take what it needs[69]
Strategically National
Nationalism and identity are still important be it part of a spiritual movement or someone's separatist mission. National ties still exist and can be compatible with what McWorld is apparently trying to accomplish; while capital is moved more freely immigration has become stricter[70] people still value what makes up their nation, multicultural or not. On the side of global governance and identity emerging we read that Huntington's civilisations are expanding[71] and see major cities in the world are now transcending their national ties in stature[72]– is it possible the EU will keep expanding and shift solidarity into non-state entities[73] a new hybrid culture with economic unity (a theme even pushing the US away from autarky[74]) and cultural diversity – or might it be stopped dead by the unwilling British who are already supposed to be on board?
The British have accepted Muslims, Hindus, and many more cultures to the point everyone there knows what Diwali is and doesn't bat an eyelid when fireworks are set off on a day that doesn't match the local traditional, the most eaten dish is Chicken Tikka Massala, and they have some of the biggest mosques outside of Asia.
Issues of human rights now transcend national borders and are thrust into international motives[75] Even terrorists relying on globalised technology to perform their despicable deeds[76],Jihad feeding off McWorld as CNN then feeds Jihad back to the McWorld. Maybe it's down to how irrevocably conditioned the mind becomes to a faction in youth through politics and schooling, the Soviets overcame Cold War self-fulfilling prophecies with the help of Gorbachev[77] so can't the nationalists/fundamentalists around the world too? Even sectarian nationalists working against inherited borders already appear to be doing on a smaller scale (often more brutal and less binding) what they actively oppose about globalisation; pushing values onto the unwilling, willing or indifferent. The difference is that coercion by force leaves much more room for rebellion than coercion by choice – a longer term, safer option. It depends on whether globalisation through peace and liberation can stop the production line of disgruntled citizens – Barber's Jihad – by giving everyone the level ground they lack. Equality followed by equanimity.
However, history tells us globalisation has lofty aims as we look to the failings of Marxism, Christianity and Islam who all had their sights on global dominion in the past[78] Recalcitrant British attitudes towards the EU federation (similar on a small scale to Barber's world confederation idea) are just part of it, you also have the movements of Basque separatists, Kurds, Palestinians[79] and more breaking up nations and trending us towards a growing numbers of states[80]. US and Western European states continue to be powerful and proud as independent nations [81]even if international intervention seems to indicate that they did not have the complete sovereignty once laid claim to[82] tighter immigration restrictions indicate attempts to honour that same sovereignty[83]. The UN is international as opposed to transnational when you look at the careful constructed makeup of nations. Areas in Asia, the Middle East and the bulk of Africa are still largely unaffected by globalisation[84] - in some cases due apprehension; Indians worrying about prevalent western themes like cancer and linking them to junk food[85] - in some cases due to political influence; Ayatolla Khomeini calling globalisation a “westoxification” and cultural extension to western hegemony[86]...perhaps even a synonym for post-colonialism[87] - to people like him the only thing worth globalising is the dissent for globalisation[88] or finally just because of exclusion; some states have nothing to offer the resource hungry globalising nations. As the globalising world attempts to spread democracy it is unwittingly spreading the inherent requirement for diversity of ideas[89] and this may be its downfall.
Conclusion
From a cultural perspective it's looks possible there's a social Darwinism going on, that we will take part of your culture and you will take part of ours and eventually a superior culture with the best of all there is to offer will be realised. We will have 'muddled through'[90] like a politician making foreign policy, to the ultimate utopia, unfortunately human nature is more brutal and greedy than that - reason rarely trumping over the appetite of Plato's tri-part human soul[91], and someone always wanting more than makes sense. Economically as is well indicated in the literature we are globalised only in the advancing nations, and many are being left behind, sometimes at the expense of others progression. It looks as survival of the fittest will occur here also, but not leave any room for stragglers. Strategically the nation and identity are still running strong. The Global North is parochial in its outlook and is nationally proud whether the rest of the world wants to bundle it into a single tern ('The West') or not. At least Marx will be happy the capitalist train has not yet arrived and that I can't twist his call to action as I planned with 'Citizens of the world unite!'. Not quite yet anyway.
[1] Holton, Robert. “Globalization's Cultural Consequences.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 570, Dimensions of Globalization (Jul 2000): 142
[2] Ramonet, Ignacio. “Let Them Eat Big Macs.” Foreign Policy, No. 116 (Autumn, 1999): 125
[3] Barber, Benjamin R. "Jihad vs. McWorld – The Atlantic (March 1992)"
[4] Kuisel, Richard F. “Coca-Cola and the Cold War: The French Face Americanization, 1948-1953.” French Historical Studies. Vol. 17, No. 1 (Spring, 1991): 97-98
[5] Kuisel, Richard F. : 108
[6] Holton, Robert: 148
[7] Hollinger, David A., Amalgamation and Hypodescent: The Question of Ethnoracial Mixture in the History of the United States. The American Historical Review 108.5 (2003): 62 pars. 30 Jul. 2009 <http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/108.5/hollinger.html>.
[8] Holton, Robert: 149
[9] Japan multiculturalism Wiki
[10] Riotta, Gianni. “The Coming Identity War.” Foreign Policy. No. 120 (Sep. - Oct., 2000): 86
[11] Holton, Robert. : 142
[12] Barber, Benjamin R. "Jihad vs. McWorld – The Atlantic (March 1992)"
[13] Torres, Carlos Alberto. “Globalization, Education, and Citizenship: Solidarity versus Markets?” American Educational Research Journal. Vol. 39, No. 2, Education and Democracy (Summer, 2002): 370
[14] Torres, Carlos Alberto. : 368
[15] Lie, John. “Review: Globalization and Its Discontents. Reviewed work(s): The Underdevelopment of Development: Essays in Honor of Andre Gunder Frank. by Sing C. Chew; Robert A. Denemark. Globalization in Question: The International Economy and the Possibilities of Governance by Paul Hirst; Grahame Thompson. Globalization: Critical Reflections. by James H. Mittelman. Globalization. by Malcolm Waters.” Contemporary Sociology. Vol. 25, No. 5 (Sep., 1996): 585
[16] Martell, Luke. “The Third Wave in Globalization Theory.” International Studies Review (2007) 9: 175
[17] Lie, John. : 585
[18] Rajgopal, Shoba S. : 135
[19] Holton, Robert. : 149
[22] Holton, Robert. : 149
[23] Harris and Platzner, "Classical Mythology" (New York, McGraw Hill, 2008): 875
[24] Kuisel, Richard F. : 115
[25] Holton, Robert. : 151
[26] Holton, Robert. : 143
[27] Prempeh, E. Osei Kwadwo. “Anti-Globalization Forces, the Politics of Resistance, and Africa: Promises and Perils.” Journal of Black Studies. Vol. 34, No. 4 (Mar., 2004): 589
[28] Prempeh, E. Osei Kwadwo. : 596
[29] English speaking population statistics
[30] Kuisel, Richard F. : 99
[31] Kuisel, Richard F. : 102
[32] Noonan, Patrick S. “[untitled] Reviewed work(s): Jihad vs. McWorld by Benjamin R. Barber.” The Journal of Marketing, Vol. 60, No. 2 (Apr., 1996): 137
[33] Kuisel, Richard F. : 112
[34] Kuisel, Richard F. : 112
[35] Riotta, Gianni. “The Coming Identity War.” Foreign Policy. No. 120 (Sep. - Oct., 2000): 86-87
[36] Guillen, Mauro F. “Is Globalization Civilizing, Destructive or Feeble? A Critique of Five Key Debates in the Social Science Literature.” Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 27, (2001): 254
[37] Holton, Robert. : 150
[38] Barber, Benjamin R. "Jihad vs. McWorld – The Atlantic (March 1992)"
[39] Guillen, Mauro F. : 254
[40] Barber, Benjamin R. "Jihad vs. McWorld – The Atlantic (March 1992)"
[41] Guillen, Mauro F. : 254
[42] Barber, Benjamin R. "Jihad vs. McWorld – The Atlantic (March 1992)"
[43] Economist.com. “The West and Islam | Tales from Eurabia” July 22ns 2006. The Economist. 31 Jul, 2009 <http://www.economist.com/opinion/PrinterFriendly.cfm?story_id=7086222>
[44] Kegley, Charles W. Jr. “World Politics: Trend and Transformation, 12th Ed.” Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2009. : 390
[45] Holton, Robert. : 146
[46] R Holton 147
[47] Kegley, Charles W. Jr. : 138-141
[48] Lie, John. : 587
[49] Rajgopal, Shoba S. “Reclaiming Democracy? The Anti-Globalization Movement in South Asia.” Feminist Review, No. 70, Globalization (2002), pp. 135
[50] Barber, Benjamin R. "Jihad vs. McWorld – The Atlantic (March 1992)"
[51] Torres, Carlos Alberto. : 368
[52] Torres, Carlos Alberto. : 367
[53] Guillen, Mauro F. : 236
[55] Juergensmeyer, Mark. “Review: Global Society Reviewed work(s): Jihad vs. McWorld. by Benjamin R. Barber.” Contemporary Sociology, Vol. 25, No. 5 (Sep., 1996): 588
[56] Martell, Luke. “The Third Wave in Globalization Theory.” International Studies Review (2007) 9: 180
[57] Martell, Luke. : 186
[58] Ramonet, Ignacio. “Let Them Eat Big Macs.” Foreign Policy, No. 116 (Autumn, 1999): 126
[59] Ramonet, Ignacio. “Let Them Eat Big Macs.” Foreign Policy, No. 116 (Autumn, 1999): 126
[60] Lie, John. : 587
[61] Prempeh, E. Osei Kwadwo. : 587
[62] Guillen, Mauro F. : 246
[63] Martell, Luke. “The Third Wave in Globalization Theory.” International Studies Review (2007) 9: 181
[64] Guillen, Mauro F. : 249
[65] Barber, Benjamin R. "Jihad vs. McWorld – The Atlantic (March 1992)"
[67] Guillen, Mauro F. : 243
[69] Lie, John. : 586
[70] Martell, Luke. : 194
[71] Huntington, Samuel P. “The Clash of Civilzations?” Summer 1993. Foreign Affairs. 30 Jul, 2009. <http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/48950/samuel-p-huntington/the-clash-of-civilizations>
[72] Guillen, Mauro F. : 249
[73] Torres, Carlos Alberto. : 364
[74] Noonan, Patrick S. : 136
[75] Torres, Carlos Alberto. : 370
[76] Lie, John, : 587
[77] Kegley, Charles W. Jr. : 107
[78] Guillen, Mauro F. : 237
[79] Barber, Benjamin R. "Jihad vs. McWorld – The Atlantic (March 1992)"
[80] Guillen, Mauro F. : 238
[82] Martell, Luke. : 189
[84] Guillen, Mauro F. : 243
[85] Rajgopal, Shoba S. : 135
[86] Juergensmeyer, Mark. : 588
[87] Rajgopal, Shoba S.: 134
[88] Rajgopal, Shoba S.: 136
[89] Noonan, Patrick S. : 136
[90] Kegley, Charles W. Jr. : 64
[91] Plato, : Book 1
No comments:
Post a Comment